[Cology] How to calculate PA2 value easily.

Dose-response curves in the presence of antagonists

Competitive antagonists

The term antagonist refers to any drug that will block, or partially block, a response. When investigating an antagonist the first thing to check is whether the antagonism is surmountable by increasing the concentration of agonist. The next thing to ask is whether the antagonism is reversible. After washing away antagonist, does agonist regain response? If an antagonist is surmountable and reversible, it is likely to be competitive (see next paragraph). Investigations of antagonists that are not surmountable or reversible are beyond the scope of this manual.

A competitive antagonist binds reversibly to the same receptor as the agonist. A dose-response curve performed in the presence of a fixedconcentration of antagonist will be shifted to the right, with the same maximum response and (generally) the same shape.

Gaddum derived the equation that describes receptor occupancy by agonist in the presence of a competitive antagonist. The agonist isdrug A. Its concentration is [A] and its dissociation constant is Ka. The antagonist is called drug B, so its concentration is [B] and dissociation constant is Kb. If the two drugs compete for the same receptors, fractional occupancy by agonist (f) equals:

The presence of antagonist increases the EC50 by a factor equal to 1+[B]/Kb. This is called the dose-ratio. You don't have to know the relationship between agonist occupancy and response for the equation above to be useful in analyzing dose response curves.

You don't have to know what fraction of the receptors is occupied at the EC50 (and it doesn't have to be 50%). Whatever that occupancy, you'll get the same occupancy (and thus the same response) in the presence of antagonist when the agonist concentration is multiplied by the dose-ratio.

The graph below illustrates this point. If concentration A of agonist gives a certain response in the absence of antagonist, butconcentration A' is needed to achieve the same response in the presence of a certain concentration of antagonist, then the dose-ratio equals A'/A. You'll get a different dose ratio if you use a different concentration of antagonist.

If the two curves are parallel, you can assess the dose-ratio at any point. However, you'll get the most accurate results by calculating the dose-ratio as the EC50 in the presence of antagonist divided by the EC50 in the absence of antagonist. The figure below shows the calculation of dose ratio.

Schild plot

If the antagonist is competitive, the dose ratio equals one plus the ratio of the concentration of antagonist divided by its Kd for thereceptor. (The dissociation constant of the antagonist is sometimes called Kb and sometimes called Kd)

A simple rearrangement gives:

If you perform experiments with several concentrations of antagonist, you can create a graph with log(antagonist) on the X-axis and log(dose ratio -1 ) on the Y-axis. If the antagonist is competitive, you expect a slope of 1.0 and the X-intercept and Y-intercept will both equal the Kd of the antagonist.

If the agonist and antagonist are competitive, the Schild plot will have a slope of 1.0 and the X intercept will equal the logarithm of the Kd of the antagonist. If the X-axis of a Schild plot is plotted as log(molar), then minus one times the intercept is called the pA2 (p for logarithm, like pH; A for antagonist; 2 for the dose ratio when the concentration of antagonist equals the pA2). The pA2 (derived from functional experiments) will equal the Kd from binding experiments if antagonist and agonist compete for binding to a single class ofreceptor sites.

Creating and analyzing Schild plots with Prism

Enter your dose-response data with X as log of the agonist concentration, and Y as response. (If you enter your data with X asconcentration, do a transform to create a table where X is log of agonist concentration). Label each Y column with a heading (title) that is the log of antagonist concentration. The first column should be the control, with agonist only (no antagonist). Label this column "control".

Use nonlinear regression to fit a sigmoid dose-response curve. Choose a standard slope or variable slope, depending on your data. From the nonlinear regression dialog, check the option to calculate dose-ratios for Schild plots.

The values of the dose ratio can only be interpreted if all the dose-response curves are parallel. If you selected the sigmoid curve with a standard slope, this will be true by definition. If you let Prism determine the slope factor for each curve, look at these (and their standard errors) to see if they differ significantly. If the slope factors differ, then the interaction is probably not strictly competitive, and Schild analysis won't be useful. If the slope factors are indistinguishable, consider holding all the slope factors constant to a single value.

The curve fit results include a results view called Summary table which tabulates the log(DR-1) for each data set (except the first, which is the control). To graph these data, go to the graph section and click the button New graph. Choose a new graph from the summary table of the nonlinear regression results.

First fit to linear regression to determine slope and intercept. If the antagonist is competitive, the Schild plot ought to have a slope that is indistinguishable from 1.0. You can check this assumption by seeing whether the confidence interval for the slope includes 1.0.

If the confidence interval for the slope does not include 1.0, your antagonist is probably not a simple competitive antagonist. For suggestions of further analyses, see T. Kenakin, Pharmacologic Analysis of Drug-Receptor Interaction, 3rd Ed. Lippincott-Raven Press, 1997.

If the confidence interval does include 1.0, refit the line constraining the slope to equal 1.0. You cannot do this with Prism's linearregression analysis. However, you can use Prism's nonlinear regression to fit a line with a constant slope. Use this equation:

Y = X - pA2

When X=pA2, Y=0. As X increases above pA2, Y increases as well the same amount. Fit this equation to determine the pA2 of the antagonist.

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Carbon NanoTubes : Emerging Carrier in Nanotechnology

Recently Carbon nanotubes have been designed to be used as a drug delivery

vector. It has shown potential in tissue engineering, nuclear targeting, and

drug, protein and peptide drug delivery also. The small nanoscale dimension

and astonishing properties make them a distinctive carrier with a wide range

of promising applications. This review briefly outlines some of the important

biomedical application of carbon nanotubes.

Introduction

In the last few decades

various micro and nanoscale drug carrier systems have been developed in order to

find well-organized and proficient carrier systems for drugs, genes, and antigen

which will assist the targeting and delivering of bioactives into specific and

precise organ, tissues and cells. These diverse drug delivery systems include

microemulsion, multiple emulsions, liposomes, niosomes, nanoemulsion,

microspheres, nanoparticle, resealed erythrocyte and dendrimers.

In recent times carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been designed to be used as a drug delivery carrier.

Carbon nanotubes were discovered by Bacon in the late 1950s. But they were not

fully appreciated at that time. In 1991 Iijima discovered CNTs and proposed it

as an interesting material due to their structural properties1. CNTs

consist of graphite sheets rolled up in to tubular form. These new nanomaterials

belonging to the family of fullerene are the third allotropes of

carbon2. Recently, scientists have also accounted that CNTs hold

potential of a drug delivery systems. The studies have shown that CNTs loaded

with peptides3, proteins4, nucleic acids5 and

drugs6 comprise effective targeting into the cells. Depending upon

the number of graphene sheets, CNTs can be classified as single-wall carbon

nanotubes and multi-wall carbon nanotubes.

1. Single-wall carbon nanotubes

Single-wall carbon

nanotubes (SWNTs) are made of a single graphene sheet. These are seamless

cylinders, were first reported in 19931. Their diameters range from

about 1 to 2 nm, and their length is usually in order of the micrometers. SWNTs

typically team up to form bundles. These bundles consists hexagonally arranged

SWNTs to form a crystal-like structure (figure 1 A).

2. Multi-wall carbon nanotubes

The multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) are made up of collection of several

graphene cylinders. MWNTs have a diameter of about 1-100nm and length of about

1-50 micrometers. The distance between each layer of MWNTs is about 0.36nm1

(figure 1 B)

Single-wall carbon nanotubes

Figure 1: (A) Single-wall carbon nanotubes (B) Multi-wall carbon nanotubes

Carbon nano horns and

fullerenes are some structurally related compound to carbon nanotubes. Carbon

nano horns are composed of graphite carbon atom structurally similar to CNTs.

The difference between CNTs and carbon nano horns is that, the latter have an

irregular horn like shape. Fullerene molecules are almost round cages of 60

carbon atoms arranged in interlocking hexagons and pentagons, like the patches

on a soccer ball.

Physicochemical properties

of CNTs include ultra light weight, ordered structure with high aspect ratio,

high mechanical strength and metallic or semi-metallic behavior with high

surface area. There are some limitations of CNTs also, which includes lack of

solubility in most solvents and aggregation. Both these limitations can be

overcome by functionalization or modification of their surface1.

Biomedical application of carbon nanotubes

Owing to the large inner

volume, CNTs proffer attractive advantages for biomedical applications. These

large inner volumes can be filled with desired bioactives of small size as well

as of large size such as proteins and peptides. The targeting and

biocompatibility aspects of bioactive loaded CNTs can also be enhanced by

effective surface functionalization.

Carbon nanotubes mediated drug delivery

In general drug delivery

system is designed to improve the pharmacological and therapeutic profile of a

drug molecule. The large inner volume of CNTs allows encapsulation of both low

as well as high molecular weight drugs. It also permits encapsulation of both

hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. More than one drug can also be loaded in CNTs

in the case of multi-drug therapy. Ligands and diagnostic moieties can also be

conjugated to surface of CNTs by functionalization to target the drugs to

specific site of action. The CNTs can act as controlled release system for drug

by releasing the loaded drugs for a long period of time. In this way CNTs can be

used multifunctionally for drug delivery and targeting.

Cellular and nuclear targeting

The endeavor behind targeted drug delivery is to enhance

the efficiency and diminishing the noxious effects. The CNTs can be chemically

surface modified such that ligands can be attached to their surface functional

groups. These ligands which are specific to certain receptors can carry the CNTs

directly to the specific site without affecting on non-target site. On the other

hand diagnostic moieties like fluoroisothiocyanate (FITC) can also be attached

to the CNTs for probing their way to the nucleus.

Carbon nanotubes in peptide delivery

The use CNTs in peptide

delivery has also been done by scientist. Application of CNT as a template for

presenting bioactive peptides to the immune system has been done. For this

purpose, by using a bifunctional linker epitope of virus and amine group of CNT

can be covalently link and immunization can be done. Subsequently the

immunogenic features of peptide–CNT conjugates can be assessed in vivo. In this

way CNTs can achieve high value in peptide delivery also7.

Carbon nanotubes in tissue engineering

The main objective of

tissue engineering is to restore unhealthy or damaged tissue with biologic

alternative which can reinstate and preserve regular tasks. The carbon nanotubes

can be used for tissue engineering by visualizing and enhancing cellular

performance and by tracking and labeling of cells8.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that

functionalization of CNTs will open new era in the potential of CNTs in

biomedical field. Some CNT are highly toxic, mostly due to their insolubility,

which is of great concerned in using CNTs. This problem can also be overcome by

functionalization. This offers the possibility of introducing more than one

function on the same CNT molecule to target bioactives, imaging agents, drugs

and ligand moieties at once. Further investigations must be done by the

scientists in the field of CNTs to establish them for their biomedical

applications.

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III - 1 Semester End Exam Previous papers.

December 2006 - 2009

http://www.mediafire.com/?3k31vu816uurhm2

November 2007-2008

http://www.mediafire.com/?thck1610khqk37h

February 2008

http://www.mediafire.com/?g6rxydco46gly3s

May 2009

http://www.mediafire.com/?8a02hwwiab9j85o

November 2009

http://www.mediafire.com/?dcemyxhyc9hadhi

Read more »

B.Pharmacy 2008 External Papers

I B.Pharmacy Regular Examination,June 2008.PHYSICAL PHARMACY I

1 a)What are the different gas laws ? Define and derive their equations.

b)Write different methods of liquefaction of gases.

2 a)Define the law of thermodynamics.

b)What is the significance of entropy in thermodynamics.

3 a)Write construction and working of Abbe Refractometer?

b)Define molar refraction and write its applications.

4 What do you meant by Solutions of Non electrolytes.Explain.

5 a) Write about Van't Hoff Theory of Solutions in detail.

b) What is meant by Equivalent conductance.

6 a)Define and discuss acid-base equilibria.

b)Explain different modern theories to explain acids,bases and salts.

7 a)Write in detail Buffer Action-Mechanisms.

b)Write in detail on Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation.

8 Explain the methodology in the construction of Electrochemical Cells.

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I B.Pharmacy Regular Examination,June 2008.ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1 a) What are epithelial cells ? Classify them and Write their functions.

b) Define tissue.Write about connective tissue cells.

2 a) Write the composition of the blood with its normal values and explain how it is

altered in the pathophysiological state.

b) Write a note on structure of RBC and its functions.

3 a) What are the different valves of heart?Write its functions?

b) Write a note on blood pressure.

4 a) Write the different types of movement occuring in the GI tract.

b) Give an account of physiology of oral cavity.

5 a) Explain the Anatomy and Physiology of pulmonary circulation.

b) Write a note on mechanism of respiration.

6 a) Enumerate the chemical substance involved in synaptic transmission.

b) Write about anatomy and physiology of thalamus

7 a) Write about the compositions of urine.Explain the pathway of urine flow.

b) Write a note on ureters.

8 a) What are the effects of 'Thyroid' hormone on different parts of the body ?

b) Discuss about anatomy of thyroid gland.

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I B.Pharmacy Regular Examination,June 2008.PHARMACEUTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I

1 (a) Write short notes on tautomerization rections.

(b) Write short notes on :

Inductive effect.

Mesomeric effect

Resonance

Hyper conjucation

2 (a) What are aldehydes and ketones ? Write any three methods of prepartion and three

important reactions for each of them.

(b) What are conjugated dienes ? Explain the formation of 1:4 addition product in

dienes.

3 (a) Explain in detail Huckle's rule for aromaticity with the help of examples.

(b) Discuss Birch reduction and two important reactions of polynuclear compounds.

4 (a) Discuss the mechanism of elimination reaction of aliphatic halogen compounds

and explain its stereochemistry.

(b) What is benzyne concept ? Explaian its mechanism.

5 (a) Discuss in detail by taking suitable examples the important rearrangement

reactions involving carbon-nitrogen migration. Also comment on the mechanism.

(b) Explain Meerwein-pondroff verley reduction.

6 What are aldehydes and ketones ? Write any three important methods of prepartion

and reaction mechanism of aldol condensation,cannizzaro reaction.

7 Write a detail note about any four synthesis using aceto acetic ester,malonic

ester and its applications.

8 (a) Explain the considering inductive effects compare the basicity of methylamine

and butylamine.

(b) Discuss reductive reactions of aromatic nitro compounds.

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I B.Pharmacy Regular Examination,June 2008.ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1 (a) What was the disaster that struck the photograph ? What was Dutta's reaction to

the disaster ?

2 Explain the following positions of articulation.

a. Bilabial

b. Labio-dental

c. Dental

d. Alveolar

3. Imagine that you are a safety Engineer of a car manufacturing factory.There has been a fire accident in the factory and one of the workers has been badly hurt and is in the hospital.Your General Manager has asked you to send him a detailed report on the accident together with your recommendations for averting a similar accident in the future.Prepare a report accordingly.

4. Prepare the following passages for reading by marking tone group boundaries,and the accent and intonation.

He was a difficult child indeed.What had his parents not done to correct him!But the result was anything satisfactory .He was disobedient and rude,and sometimes even violent.At home he was a terror to his younger brother and sister,who often complianed of his cruelty.At school he was a bully of the worst kind.His classmates and his juniors were mortally afraid of him,and his teachers,one and all,complained of his rudeness and even arrogance.The Headmaster,finding himself under great pressure from both his students and colleagues,bundled him out one day,leaving his parents alone to bear the brunt of his madness.

5.From the story "A Service of Love"-Art or Love -which is more important?

6.(a) Write a short note on Fourth Estate.

(b) what do you know about press freedom day?What did the author remember while writing about it?

7. As the sports secretary of your college,write a report on the Annual Sports Day event that took place in your college.

8. Make Antonyms of the following words by adding suitable prefixes:

approve,connect,function,legible,conventional,soph isticated,social,

conduct,balnce,permeable,generate,reversible,consi stent,mobile,significant,

forestation.

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I B.Pharmacy Regular Examination,June 2008.REMEDIAL BIOLOGY

1. (a) Describe the structure,chemical composition,types and functions of DNA.

(b) Write the difference between DNA and RNA

2. Describe the structure and functions of special tissues?

3. Describe the different techniques used for section cutting of a crude drug.

4. Describe the various types of aerial root modification ?

5.With the help of neat labelled diagrams describe the structure and life-history of

Entamoeba histolytica.

6.Give an account of the life history of schistosoma. Draw neat labeled diagram of the same.write a notes on pathogenicity.

7.Write a short notes on :

(a)Body wall

(b)Endo skeleton of cockroach

(c)Fat bodies

(d)Locomotion

8. Explain the mouth parts of Adult culex mosquito.Draw diagram of the same.

write a note on the feeding habit and the diseases caused by mosquito.

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I B.Pharmacy Regular Examinations,June 2008.PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1 (a) Write account on sources of impurities for any three compounds.

(b) Discuss about the qualitative tests for anions and cations.

2 (a) Write preparation,assay and uses of any two calcium compounds.

(b) write a note on Radiopharmaceuticals.

3.Write detail account on the test for Neutralising capacity of wet and dried Aluminium Hydroxide Gel and its applications.

4. Write brief notes on the prepartion,assay principle ,limit tests and appliction of iodine and Iodides.

5. Write in detail the preparation and applicatios of copper sulphate and its medicinal uses.

6. How do you prepare Boric acid from Borax? Write the principle involved in the assay of Boric acid and applications.

7. Discuss about the preparation,assay principle ,limit tests and uses of any two Dental products.

8. Write an essay about the Sodium aurothiomalate and its applications.

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II B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examination,November 2008.PHARMACEUTICAL UNIT OPERATION-I

1. What is equilibrium state in a rate process.Give the equilibrium constants.

2. Describe the construction,working,specifications,advantages and limitations of following valves

(a) Globe valves

(b) Diaphram valves

3. Discuss briefly about working and applications of the following pumps.

(a) Gear pumps.

(b) Peristalitic pumps.

4. (a) Describe the construction and working of sintered glass filters.

(b) Compare plate and frame filter press with rotary centrifuge filters.

5.Define the following terms :

(a) Amorphous Solids.

(b) Ploymorphs.

(c) Meta Stable Polymorphs.

6. Write short notes on following :

(a) Applications of Air-conditioning.

(b) Approaches for achieving Air-Conditioning.

7. Write the following:

(a) Deascribe fluid corrosion.

(b) Explian about specific site corrosion.

8. Give a brief account on hazards in Pharmaceutical industry and the preventive safety measures.

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II B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examination,November 2008.PHARMACEUTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-II

1. What happens when :-

(a) Pyrrole is treated with H2,Ni, at 250 degree centigardes.

(b) Discuss the structure & Nomenclature of Pyrrole.

2. Explain the following : 4-bromo-1-Methyl Imidazole treated with n-BuLi/-78 degree centigardes than DMF give C5H6N2O Carrying out the same sequence but allowing the solution to warm to 0 degree centigardes before addition of DMF gave an isomeric product.

3. What are conformational isomers/Illustrate your answer using ethane & cyclohexane as example?

4. (a)Discuss the objectives advanced aganist open chain formula of glucose

(b)How does the ring structure in general overcome the objections

(c)Deduce the nature of the ring.

5. (a) Define and classify amino acids with suitable examples.

(b) How do proteins undergo denaturation? Add a note on Pharmaceutical importance of amino acids .

6. (a) List out the important cardiac glycosides with structures and add a note on the properties and actions of glycone and aglycone parts respectively.

(b)How do you distinguish oils and fats.Define saponification vcalue,acid value and iodine values and their significance.

7. (a) Write the structure for four purine derivatives,and mention their major therapeutic applications

(b) Give a detailed account on the structures of DNA & RNA.

8.Write the mechanism and synthetic applications for the following

(a) Michael addition reaction

(b) Mannich reaction.

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II B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examination,November 2008.PHYSICAL PHARMACY-II

1. Discuss how presure,temperature,presence of salt and chemical recation can affect the solubility of gases in liquids.

2. Write on the following :

(a) Determination of stability constnat for complexes by distribution method and solubility method.

(b) Self-association of drugs.

3. Explain first-order reaction citing a suitable example.Derive the equation to calculate the first-order rate constnat.Describe first-order kinetics with the help of a curve.

4.(a) State and exlain "surface tension" and "interfacial tension" at the liquid interface.

(b) What is surface free energy? Explain how it is related to surface tension.

5. (a) Discuss in detail about the pharmaceutical applications on micromeritics

(b) Write a short note on different parameters used to express particle size.

6.(a) Explain the plastic and pseudo plastic behaviour of the materials with the help of flow curves and specific examples?

(b) Differentiate between Newtonian and Non Newtonian systems with suitable exaples?

7.(a) Classify the collodial systems according to states of matter ?

(b) Define Schuiz Hardy rule ? What are its applications ?

8.(a) Define emulgents.What are the desirable properties of an emulsifying agents ?

(b) Discuss the importance and mention the factors affecting the emulsion viscosity.

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II B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examination,November 2008.HEALTH EDUCATION AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

1. (a) Write about the importance of proteins in the body & discuss the deficiency disorders.

(b) Describe the sources of vitamins and their deficiency disorders.

2. Write briefly about

(a) Significance of Family planning.

(b) Permanent methods of Family planning.

(c) Temporary methods of Family planning.

3. Write the causative agents,modes of transmission and prevention of

(a) Typhoid.

(b) Malaria.

(c) Filariasis.

(d) Rabies.

4.(a) Write about Cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

(b) Deacribe the first aid given in shock & snakebites.

5. Write about :

(a) Fertilization

(b) Sex differentiation

(c) Ogenesis.

6. (a) Discuss and differentiate necrosis and Apoptosis.

(b) Explain about atrophy as a cellular adaptation.

7. (a) Write about the vascular events incase of acute inflammation.

(b) Briefly outline the process of Repair.

8. Write the Pathophysiology of

(a) Peptic ulcer.

(b) Hypertension.

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II B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examination,November 2008.STATISTICAL METHOD AND COMPUTER APPLICATION

1. A sales tax office has reported that average sales of the 500 business that he has to deal with during a year is Rs.36,000 with a standard deviation of 10,000 assuming that the sales in these business are normally distributed,find

(a) The number of business has the sales of which are Rs 40,000.

(b) The percentage of business the sale of which are likely to range between Rs 30,000 and Rs 40,000.

2. Find carl pearson's coefficient of correlation in the following series relating to prices and supply of a commodity: 

Price(Rs) 8 10 15 17 20 22 24 25

Supply 25 30 32 35 37 40 42 45

3. From the data given below find out whether the means of three samples differ significantly or not. 

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

20 19 13

10 13 12

17 17 10

17 12 15

16 9 5

4. (a) Expalin about randomized complete block design (RBD)

(b) Three varieties A,B and C of mungbean are tested in a randomized block design with four replications.The plot yield in pounds are as follows. 

A 6 C 5 A 8 B 9

C 8 A 4 B 6 C 9

B 7 B 6 C 10 A 6

analyse the experimental yoeld and state your conclusion.

5. (a) Define a computer

(b) Explain uses and characteristics of computer.

6. Compare and contrast packages an Application program.

7. (a)Define Arrays and its type.

(b)Write a C program to find the matrix multiplication of a 3*3 matrix.

8.(a) Define the terms Bio-Technology and Bio-Engineering.

(b) Explain the role of computers in Pharmaceutical applications.

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JNTU HYD IV B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examinations, November 2008 BIOPHARMACEUTICS AND PHARMACOKINETICS

1. Discuss the role of pharmacokinetics in designing a dosage form. (16)

2. Give an account of various mechanisms of drug absorption across cell

membrane. (16)

3. Write an essay on distribution of drugs in central neivoua system. (16)

4. (a) When is drug binding irreversible

(b) What is the therapeutic implication in such irreversible binding. (8+8)

5. Write a note on:

(a) compartment models.

(b) michaclis-menten equation.

6. (a) Describe the scope of clinical pharmacokinctics with suitable examples

(b) Explain how to adjust the dose in patient with and without Hepatic failure

[8+8]

7. Define Bioavailability. Explain various measurements of Bioavailability. (16)

8. What is Bioequivalence? Give design of simple dose bioequivalence study

with suitable examples.(16) 

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JNTU HYD IV B.Pharmacy I Semester Regular Examinations, November 2008 PHARMACY ADMINISTRATION

1. (a) Define Cooperative society. What are its features?

(b) Write a brief note on Consumers’ cooperative societies. [8+8]

2. Write short notes on

(a) EOQ

(b) VED

(c) Quality Control

(d) Plant layout. (4+4+4+4)

3. Define Air pollution List the nature of air pollution and its adverse effects on

environment. (16)

4. (a) Define Foreign Tade. Write the procedure for export of goods.

(b) What are the advantages and limitations of international trade? (8+8)

5. Explain the special provisions regarding the location of pharmaceutical

industry? (16)

6. Write about the export and import of drugs and pharmaceuticals in India?

[16J

7. Mention the panel and board of members of Pharmaceutical Experts

Association (PEXA). (16)

8. Explain in detail about the Structure or layout of a drug store? (16) 

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JNTU HYD IV B. Pharmacy I SEMESTER Supplementary Examinations, Aug/Sep-2008. Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics

1.a) Define Bio-pharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics and give the importance in

formulation development.

b) Define Absorption. Differentiate active and passive transport of drugs.

2.a) Give the importance of particle size, Dissolution rate and pK., on

absorption of drugs.

b) Explain the mechanism of absorption of following compounds.

i) Insulin ii) Vitamin B12.

3.a) What are the factors which effect protein binding and give its clinical

significance.

b) A drug when administered at a dose of 50mg showed an initial concentration

of 0.5mg/ml. Given the half life of the drug 1 .5hr, what is the total clearance of

the drug?

4.a) Write in detail about compartment modelling.

b) What is Mean Residence Time”. Give its significance.

5.a) Mention Various PH-kinetic parameters that can be assessed following oral

administration of a drug.

b) Define absorption rate constant. Discuss the methods to determine absorption

rate constant and its significance.

6. Discuss the significance of Non-linear pharmacokinetjcs with reference to

one compartment model after IV administration and explain the detection of

Non-linearity.

7. What is clinical pharmacokinetics. Discuss the dosage adjustment in patients

with and without Renal & Heptic failure.

8.a) Define Absolute and Relative Bioavailability.

b) Discuss in detail the Bioavailability study protocol. 

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JNTU HYD IV B.Pharmacy I SEMESTER Supplementary Examinations, Aug/Sep-2008. MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY

I .a) What are the advantages and limitations of QSAR?

b) Explain the importance of isomerism. With the help of few examples. in drug

action.

2.a) Discuss drug — receptor interaction. What is transduction mechanism?

b) Write about CADD and molecular modelling.

3.a.) Explain the classification of drugs on the basis of their therapeutic actions.

b) Write about the mechanism of action of prostaglandins.

4.a) Describe the synthetic procedures of any two important adrenergic drugs?

b) Give their mode of action, structure activity relationships and uses.

5 Define antihistamines. Explain their mode of action, structure activity

relationships and uses.

6. Write notes on

a) Eicosanoids

b) Neuromuscular blocking agents.

7. Classify analgesic and antipyretic drugs, with suitable examples. Discuss their

mechanism of action. Write the synthesis of any two agents of this class.

8. Write the structure and therapeutic uses of the following drugs:

a) Atropine b) Ephedrine HCI

c) Chlorpheniramine d) Paracetamol

e) Papaverine Hcl f) Propranolol HCI g) Oxvtocjn. 

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